FOCUS ON FISH
Following a three-year campaign against
Focus, Animal Aid has now received a guarantee from Focus' commercial director
that it will stop the sale of all animals, including fish, in its stores within
the next two years. This factfile (also available in PDF
format) details the suffering of fish in the 'pet' trade.
 Background
In the mid 1990's, DIY giant Focus Do it All begun selling
a range of 'pet' animals in its stores, including small mammals, reptiles, fish
and 'exotic' birds. In February 2000, Animal Aid launched a campaign against
these sales, pointing out that shoppers intending to purchase DIY goods could
easily be tempted into an impulse purchase of an animal without thinking through
that animal's long term care needs.
The campaign - which included hundreds of demonstrations at the company's stores
around the country, plus undercover filming and the publication of factual reports
- proved highly successful. In October 2000, Focus agreed to end all reptile
sales, and - in February 2002 - announced that it would phase-out the selling
of all birds and mammals.
However, more than a year after having made this promise, while many stores
have shut down their pet departments, numerous Focus outlets that were previously
trading in animals are continuing to do so. Animal Aid is concerned that if
the phase-out programme continues at the current rate, it will take years for
Focus to fulfill its promise and end animal sales. We asked the company to speed
up the process and also to adopt a truly consistent stance by ending fish sales
as well. In June 2003, the firm's commercial director wrote to Animal Aid confirming
that Focus were now committed to end all animal sales - fish included - and
that their 'exit' strategy would take two years. The company did not specify
when the two year period actually began. Animal Aid intends to monitor the phase-out
of animal sales.
The case against 'ornamental' fish sales
Meanwhile, Focus continue to sell 'ornamental' fish i.e. species purchased
for 'decoration' rather than to eat. The main coldwater ornamental fish are
goldfish (Carassius auratus) and koi carp (Cyprinus carpio).
Focus fish are freshwater, rather than saltwater and originate from Malaysia,
Israel and elsewhere.
Look around and you'll see 'ornamental fish' everywhere - not just in tanks
in homes, offices and bars but also in picture frames and tubes. Animal Aid
has recently completed a successful campaign to end the sale in the UK of 'Aquababies'
- live fish sold in small cubes.
A closer examination of the ornamental fish industry reveals yet another tale
of profit-motivated animal exploitation. The fish are mass-produced, leading
to associated welfare problems and disease risks. Fish are expected to conform
to a stipulated sex, colour and quality and those who don't 'make the grade'
are killed.
Starved, mutitated and drugged
Those 'specimens' whose quality is deemed high enough for export will be starved
for days before being transported in order to 'purge' them of the faeces that
could dirty their water and cause ammonia pollution. Their fins may be hacked
off to ensure that the transportation bags don't get punctured. They are packed
densely into plastic bags and transported for thousands of miles before reaching
the store shelf - creating ideal conditions for disease to spread. The fishes'
delicate outer surface is damaged each time they are netted or handled and their
resistance to stress and disease is lowered. Drugs are routinely added to their
water in an attempt to solve the problem. Already, certain types of bacteria
are becoming resistant to antibiotics.
It is this type of treatment of animals that has resulted in one disease outbreak
after another sweeping through the intensive animal farming industry, along
with the creation of antibiotic-resistant 'superbugs'. Surely the human race
is innovative enough to create pictures and decorations that do not make use
of live animals?
About fish
Fish are cold-blooded, which means that their temperature fluctuates in relation
to the surrounding water. They are finely attuned to their environment by the
senses of taste, touch, sight, smell, hearing and other faculties unique to
fish. (1) They breathe through their gills
- taking in water through their mouths, retaining the oxygen and passing it
into their bloodstream. Most fish have a row of tiny pores on their side called
the lateral line. These act as a hearing aid by sensing low frequency pressure
waves and making them very sensitive to vibrations and reflections. They provide
important information about food or predators from some distance. Outside the
water, however, fish can hear no sounds.
Fish are short sighted. They see in colour and their eyes can look in separate
directions at the same time. They use their tongues and lips to build nests,
gather food and hide their young from danger. Some fish have taste buds on their
body that detect the taste of food at a distance. The sensitivity of detection
increases as the fish gets closer to the food source, which allows them to find
food even when they cannot see it. They also have sensory organs called nares,
which receive smell through the water rather than through the air. Additional
sensory capabilities in some species can recognise and react to very low levels
of electricity. The electrical impulses help them to find their prey and avoid
predators. Stray electrical currents in fish culture units can therefore affect
the fish. (2)
Fish feel pain
Increased heart rate, increased breathing rate, adrenaline rush, writhing,
gasping - fish display similar signs to humans when under stress and faced with
dangerous situations. Fish feel pain out of biological necessity, just as all
mammals do. They possess a brain, central nervous system and pain receptors
all over their bodies. Without the ability to feel pain they would not survive.
They also produce enkephalins and endorphins, chemicals known to counter pain
in humans. Scientific reports from around the world substantiate these basic
realities.
The evidence of pain
In a key 1996 report examining the welfare of farmed fish, the Ministry of
Agriculture's official advisory body, the Farm Animal Welfare Council, noted
the following:
'Almost all fish live the whole of their lives in water and show a maximal
emergency response when removed from water, even for a very short period. This
response includes changes in heart rate, increased production of adrenaline,
noradrenaline and cortisol and vigorous muscle contractions...' These changes
'often indicate fear in the fish... All of the scientific evidence concerning
such effects makes it clear that the term stress is certainly relevant to fish
and that the means by which stress effects are mediated are very similar to
those in mammals. Evidence that the term pain is applicable to fish comes from
anatomical, physiological and behavioural studies whose results are very similar
to those of studies on birds and mammals. The fact that fish are cold blooded
does not prevent them from having a pain system and, indeed, such a system is
valuable in preserving life and maximising the biological fitness of individuals.
The receptor cells, neuronal pathways and specialised transmitter substances
in the pain system are very similar in fish to those in mammals.' (3)
'Fish react to stress and other environmentalchallenges in much the same
way as traditional research animals.' (4)
The Medway Report, an enquiry sponsored by the RSPCA into angling and shooting
(1979), concluded:
'[The] evidence suggests that all vertebrates (including fish)... experience
similar sensations to a greater or lesser degree in response to noxious stimuli.'
The report stated that there is no reason to differentiate between warm-blooded
and cold-blooded creatures.
Even a study funded by the British Field Sports Society and the National Federation
of Anglers found that capture of fish by anglers causes acute physiological
stress. (5)
Dr Donald Broom, Professor of Animal Welfare at Cambridge University, has stated:
'The scientific literature is quite clear. Anatomically, physiologically
and biologically, the pain system in fish is virtually the same as in birds
and mammals...in animal welfare terms, you have to put fishing in the same category
as hunting.' (6)
The most recent evidence comes from research conducted at the Roslin Institute
near Edinburgh. (7) Researchers took measurements
from individual neurons in anaesthetised rainbow trout while they poked the
fish's heads and applied acid and heat.
Analysis satisfied the team that fish have the 'neural hardware' to transmit
pain messages. To determine whether this meant that they were capable of actually
registering pain, they decided to look for behavioural responses that resemble
those exhibited by a human in pain. The team compared the behaviour of fish
who had either bee venom or acetic acid injected into their lips with animals
that had received harmless saline.
The fish subjected to the hurtful chemicals showed clear signs of physiological
stress. They took 90 minutes longer to resume feeding and their rate of gill
breathing was characteristic of a fish swimming at top speed. They also rocked
from side to side in a manner that the researchers compared with the repetitive
behaviours sometimes seen in zoo animals. The fish treated with acid also rubbed
their lips on the sides and bottom of the tank.
 Lifespan
The lifespan of a fish is much longer than people tend to think. For example,
goldfish can live for up to 25 years. (8)
Rearing and transportation
The majority of coldwater ornamental fish sold in the UK are imported. An estimated
35 million fish are imported through Heathrow airport every year. The main exporter
is Singapore. (9) These fish are typically
farmed intensively in the source country, then caught and transported vast distances
before arriving on the store shelf. The whole process is fraught with welfare
problems and causes much suffering. Stressed, exhausted fish are more susceptible
to disease. The industry's response has been to begin research into the development
of vaccines that would produce a handsome income for the veterinary supply side
of the industry.
Rearing
Ornamental fish fall into two broad categories:
1. Live-bearers - these include the guppies and mollies sold by Focus, as well
as platies and swordtails.
2. Egg-layers - including the gouramis and danios sold by Focus. (10)
Live-bearers are grown almost exclusively in outdoor pools. Stocking rates
for the breeding ponds can vary from 50 to 1000 fish. They are usually caught
with baited traps, which are placed along the edges of the pond early in the
morning. They are then sorted - some being sold, some put in another pond, others
returned to the same pond, and some killed because they don't 'make the grade'.
Commercial production techniques for egg-layers are 'guarded closely by the
producers'. (11) Most are bred in hatcheries
and reared in tanks or ponds.
Undesirables are killed: Given that ornamental fish are valued
for their appearance, it is no surprise that those who fail the quality test
are unceremoniously disposed of. Most 'live-bearers' are hybrids or colour variations,
and University of Florida researchers state that, 'many are discarded because
their colouration, finnage or quality do not conform to the desired type'.
Buyers usually demand an equal ration of male and female fish and in most pond
populations, the number of sexually mature males lags behind the number of females
and so the 'excess' females are killed because there are no males to ship with
them. (12) For these and other reasons,
more than half the population of a pond is killed.
Handling and netting - a heavy toll of damage and disease
All fish experience physical damage during netting and transportation. This
can result in symptoms such as split fins, cloudy eyes and increased susceptibility
to disease and infections. Fish crowded together in a trap or net can rapidly
deplete the oxygen supply. (13)
Because fish scales are not watertight, fish have a layer of protective mucus
that keeps out infection and helps prevent the loss of electrolytes (salts)
from the gills and skin. (14) Mucus also
forms a chemical barrier because it contains enzymes (lysozymes) and antibodies
(immunoglobulins) which can kill invading organisms. (15)
Each time fish are netted, the mucus is damaged. Fish become more susceptible
to infection and essential salts leach out into the aquarium water. Salt loss
can lead to heart failure and muscle spasms. (16)
Mucus damage also results in decreased lubrication, meaning that fish need more
energy to swim - often at times when their energy reserves are already being
used up because of stress. Stress also causes chemical changes in the mucus
which decrease its effectiveness as a barrier against invading organisms. Handling
can damage fish scales and skin - another physical barrier to protect the fish
from injury. Breaks in the skin or removed scales create an opening for infection.
(17)
The stress of transportation
Prior to transportation, some ornamental fish may have their tail cut off,
while other species may have corks or polystyrene pieces pushed onto their fin
spines in order to prevent them from puncturing the bag. (18)
Fish are typically transported in plastic bags charged with oxygen. (19)
Between one and four bags are usually packed into a box. Depending on size,
up to 500 fish may be crammed into a single bag. Fish packers in Asia often
use bags manufactured from stock tube plastic and heat-sealed at one end so
there is only a single seam. These are called 'pillow bags' because there is
no flat surface. Boxes are not big - an 'Asia Double Box' measures 60 x 42 x
30 cm and an 'Alternate Asia Box' 49 x 38 x 38 cm.
During the journey, fish will become stressed because of noise, vibration,
confinement, crowding and unnatural water and temperature conditions - factors
that can lead to disease and death later on. (20)
Oxygen levels fall in the plastic bags and levels of ammonia and carbon dioxide
increase.
Fish are starved: In an attempt to prevent ammonia building
up from fish faeces, the fish are frequently starved before being packed up.
The industry recommends that feeding should be withheld for a minimum of two
days and up to five days, depending on species. One team of researchers states
that, 'the absence of faeces in the tank will indicate that fish have had an
adequate purge time prior to sorting, counting and shipping'. (21)
Fish are drugged: In an attempt to keep fish alive in these
wholly unnatural conditions, sedatives, water quality stabilizers and antibiotics
may be added to the water. The wide use of the antibiotic tetracycline in fish
shipped out from Asia is leading to bacteria becoming immune to it. (22)
Delays en route: Ornamental Fish International (OFI) (a worldwide
organisation that represents all areas of the "ornamental aquatic industry"
including wholesalers, importers, exporters, breeders etc) state that 'compliance
with IATA (International Air Transport Association) Live Animal Regulations
with regard to packing and handling procedures results in the vast majority
of ornamental aquatic livestock enjoying global trouble-free transportation'.
However, they continue, '[o]n occasions (but on an infrequent basis), consignments
may become stranded in transit at airports, owing to missed flight connections,
arrival outside veterinary inspection centre opening hours, essential documentation
going astray, or several other factors. At such times, the welfare of the livestock
could be placed at risk, particularly if delays prove excessive.' The OFI
lists companies around the world which can 'rescue' stranded consignments. (23)
What sort of condition do the fish arrive in after their lengthy journeys?
One Hawaiian research team states: 'Fish that are densely packed in bags
that have taken longer than expected to arrive may be suffering from exposure
to accumulations of ammonia, thermal shock, or other problems'. (24)
But their ordeal is by no means over.
Problems of confinement
Temperature changes: Fish are highly sensitive to temperature
and sudden changes affect their immune systems. Cold temperatures can completely
halt the activity of 'killer cells' in the immune system and impair the fishes'
ability to release antibodies against an invading organism, thus undermining
their defence against disease. Excessively hot temperatures are also damaging.
(25)
Ammonia build up: When large numbers of fish are kept in a
small space, nitrogenous wastes and ammonia build up. Producers supposedly use
recirculating, biologically filtered water in an attempt to combat the problem.
(26) Even so, one expert has stated that,
'[h]igh levels of ammonia are commonly associated with disease outbreaks
when fish are crowded in vats or tanks'. (27)
Lack of oxygen: When numerous fish are kept in a small area,
they can become deprived of sufficient oxygen. This is dangerous for the fish
as '[l]ow oxygen is a frequent cause of fish mortality in ponds, especially
in the summer'. (28)
Small tanks: If fish are kept in tanks too small for their
size, their health and growth is affected and they can develop deformities.
(29) Silver sharks (sold by Focus) can grow
to 14" and in the wild, they are fast swimming shoal fish. Imagine their
frustration when confined in a tank! It's not just the limited space that stresses
fish - the noise from pumping and filtering equipment also has a significant
impact. Other factors causing stress to the fish include social mixing, water
quality and lack of environmental enrichment. (30)
Watchdog investigation
Pets at Home, a rival pet shop chain to Focus, was the subject of a recent
investigation by the BBC1 television programme, Watchdog. (31)
Two Pets at Home customers, who bought fish, found that staff were not on hand
to provide advice. The fish died quickly, despite them having treated the water
for disease. Watchdog visited Pets at Home branches with an ornamental fish
expert, Peter Bradley, and found dead and diseased fish in eight out of nine
stores. In three branches, they found that fish had been left in the tank for
so long they had started to decay and were being eaten by others. In one store,
they discovered four dead goldfish in one tank.
After purchases, the documentary team found that fish were spun round in their
bags by staff - something which causes stress and can be fatal.
Death and disease
Fish naturally carry a variety of pathogenic bacteria, fungi and parasites.
Aquariums also harbour these organisms, which are especially prevalent in the
gravel bed. (32) Healthy fish with healthy
immune systems should be able to fight off these ever-present disease organisms
but unhealthy fish may fall victim. After the ordeal of transportation in crowded
plastic bags, fish are stressed and particularly vulnerable to falling sick.
By depending on their 'emergency' energy reserves, fish are able to adapt to
stress for a finite period but eventually, they become exhausted. At this point,
their ability to resist the constantly-present disease organisms diminishes.
Hormones released from the adrenal gland during stressful periods suppress
the fishes' inflammatory response. Inflammation is characterized by pain, swelling,
redness or heat and constitute a protective response - an attempt by the body
to destroy an invading bacteria, virus, parasite, fungus or toxin. Without this
resistance, the fishes' ability to combat disease is lowered.
Types of disease: Fish can be affected by a huge range of
infectious and non-infectious diseases. Infectious diseases are contagious and
caused by parasites, bacteria, viruses or fungi. They are usually treated with
medication. Non-infectious diseases can be environmental, nutritional or genetic.
(33)
White spot disease or 'ich': This is particularly common amongst
ornamental fish. Typically, they will develop small blister-like raised lesions
along the body wall and/or fins. The gills become swollen and covered with thick
mucus. If the infection spreads beyond the gills, white spots become visible.
Ich can cause massive mortality within a short time. (34)
Sick fish: Sick fish often stop feeding and may appear lethargic.
Healthy fish should eat aggressively if fed at regularly scheduled times. Sick
fish may be observed hanging listlessly in shallow water, gasping at the surface
or rubbing against objects. They may develop sores (ulcers or haemorrhages),
ragged fins, a distended, swollen abdomen and exopthalmia or 'popeye'. (35)
Drug use
It has been acknowledged that 'indiscriminate and improper use of chemicals,
including antibiotics, in fish is widespread in the aquatic animal industry'.
(36) Industry representatives recommend
a host of treatments to combat the stresses inherent in breeding and transporting
aquarium fish. As seen in the intensive animal farming industry, this is typically
only a short-term solution. The internet company Aquapharm have admitted that
the 'use of traditional antibacterial medications has led to increased resistance
of bacterial fish pathogens to medications'. It proceeds to recommend mass drug
treatments to combat disease, stating that '[t]ropical fish retailers have found
that treating all new fish with MelaFix reduces fish loss and improves the health
and vigor'. (37)
It is common for fish-keepers to administer haphazardly a series of treatments
to aquariums in attempts to cure sick fish. Florida university researchers state,
'[a] common mistake of fish culturists is misdiagnosing disease problems
and treating their sick fish with the wrong medication or chemical. When the
chemical doesn't work, they will try another, then another'. (38)
Vaccines for ulcer disease - a commercial bonanza
A major study, sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs (DEFRA) and backed by Heriot Watt University and commercial organisations
including Neil Hardy Aquatica, aims to investigate the development and use of
vaccines to control ulcer disease in coldwater ornamental fish. Their initial
research states that '[l]arge numbers of individuals of these species (they
refer to goldfish and koi carp) are imported annually into the UK. However,
there is an ongoing problem of disease, namely ulcer disease, which may infect
large numbers of fish. This disease may occur during transportation during the
UK or develop soon after their arrival'. (39)
The researchers see vaccination as an exciting commercial opportunity. 'Opportunities
for sales of any successful vaccines would be global, and provide the UK with
excellent opportunities to establish overseas markets... Countries such as Japan,
Israel, China and the USA among others produce significant volumes of goldfish
and koi. These countries would represent significant export opportunities for
any company producing an effective vaccine and vaccination strategy.' (40)
The industry
Big business
Ornamental fish are big business. They are kept by between 3 and 3.5 million
households in the UK, making them the third most popular pet group after dogs
and cats. One industry survey estimated the total UK ornamental fish population
at 100 million. Retail sales of fish and associated goods amount to between
£200 and £300 million a year, with coldwater fish contributing heavily
to this figure. Around 2000 retail outlets sell live fish, more than 100 businesses
import and wholesale them, and there are several hundred manufacturers servicing
the needs of the industry. In total, more than 12 million ornamental fish are
imported from all sources annually. (41)
The Malaysian industry
The global retail value of the Malaysian ornamental fish industry is estimated
at RM20 billion (£1 = approximately 6 Malaysian Ringitts) but this increases
fivefold if aquarium systems and accessories and feeds, drugs and other plants
are included. Accessories include water filtration systems, pumps, aerators,
lighting, water heating systems and water sterilisation equipment.
The industry started up in the 1950s and has been developing heavily, with
government support, since the 1980s. There are more than 400 farms, with 90%
producing ornamental fish and 10% producing natural feed and aquatic plants.
The government sees enormous potential for industry expansion and offers support
services and fiscal incentives to promote its development. The government's
National Agriculture Policy calls for the development of aquaculture, aquarium
fish included. 96% of fish are exported and the industry is made up almost exclusively
of freshwater species. Malaysian airport procedures have now been simplified
in an attempt to stop the 'massive mortalities' that were occurring whilst exporters
were held up at customs. (42)
The Israeli industry
The annual turnover of the Israeli ornamental fish and marine plant industry
is $12 million. The fish are exported overseas, mainly to Europe. Israeli fish
farmers work closely with Agrexco - the country's leading agricultural exporter.
Ornamental fish and plants are sold under the 'Carmel' label, also seen on other
Israeli products like avocados. (43)
A new disease sprung up in Israeli fish farms between May 1998 and early 2000,
resulting in massive mortalities. It was labeled Koi Herpes Virus (KHV). Exports
of Israeli-bred Koi dropped dramatically in a short space of time and the disease
began occurring in other countries. Export levels are only just recovering.
Affected fish suffer from white patches on their gills, excessive mucus production,
bleeding, ulceration, sunken eyes and spurts of intense activity interspersed
with periods of lethargy. Most fish die within days. (44)
Conclusions
Fish are sensitive creatures with complex needs. Their mass production and
transportation is profoundly traumatising and results in a host of disease problems
and high levels of mortality. Animal Aid is against keeping fish in aquariums
per se. However, it is particularly inappropriate for DIY chains like Focus
to sell fish. The purchaser - who will often buy on impulse - may have no idea
how to identify and treat sick fish or what conditions are necessary to give
them some semblance of a comfortable life. Goldfish can live for 25 years; something
the impulse buyer is unlikely to have taken into consideration.
All the evidence points to the fact that ornamental fish do not thrive in captivity
and instead become stressed and sick. Animal Aid is delighted by the public
pledge by Focus to end all ornamental fish sales, and urges members of the public
to stop and think before making a purchase of fish, from whatever outlet.
Please encourage Focus in its commitment to
stop selling all animals including fish, by writing to the firm's local stores
explaining the importance of ceasing all animal sales.
REFERENCES
- TE Schwedler (Clemson University, South Carolina);
SK Johnson (Wildlife & Fisheries Science, Texas A&M University)
Responsible Care and Health Maintenance of Fish in Commercial
Aquaculture
- TE Schwedler (Clemson University, South Carolina)
& SK Johnson (Wildlife & Fisheries Science, Texas A&M
University) Responsible Care and Health Maintenance of Fish in
Commercial Aquaculture
- Farm Animal Welfare Council Report on the Welfare
of Farmed Fish, September 1996
- In T. Brattelid and AJ Smith, Laboratory Animals
(2000) 34, 131-135
- T.G. Pottinger, Fish Welfare Literature Review,
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- Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B: Biological
Sciences Vol. 270, No. 1520
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- Department of Environmental Services, Heathrow
Animal Reception Centre 2003
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of Ornamental Fish University of Florida June 1996
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of Ornamental Fish University of Florida June 1996
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of Ornamental Fish University of Florida Coop etc, June 1996
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& Transport University of Florida Fact Sheet FA-3 May 1997
- www.aquariumpharm.com
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University of Florida May 1997
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University of Florida May 1997
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- Brian Cole et al Shipping Practices in the Ornamental
Fish Industry CTSA Publication No. 131 February 1999
- Brian Cole et al Shipping Practices in the Ornamental
Fish Industry CTSA Publication No. 131 February 1999
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Fish Industry CTSA Publication No. 131 February 1999
- Brian Cole et al Shipping Practices in the Ornamental
Fish Industry CTSA Publication No. 131 February 1999
- www.ornamental-fish-int.org/24rescue
- OFI Journal (26) February 1999
- Floyd, R.F Introduction to Fish Health Management
University of Florida May 1997
- Watson, C.A & Shireman, J.V Production of
Ornamental Fish, University of Florida June 1996
- Floyd, R.F Introduction to Fish Health Management
University of Florida May 1997
- Floyd, R.F Introduction to Fish Health Management
University of Florida May 1997
- www.fish-fanatics.co.uk/julyarticle01
- Dr Barbara Maas Prepared and Shipped RSPCA 2000
- Watchdog 29.11.01
- www.aquariumpharm.com/publications/aqguide/apc100
- Floyd, R.F Introduction to Fish Health Management
University of Florida May 1997
- Klinger, R.E & Floyd, R.F Introduction to
Freshwater Fish Parasites Circular 716 University of Florida 1998
(1987)
- Klinger, R.E & Floyd, R.F Introduction to
Freshwater Fish Parasites Circular 716 University of Florida 1998
(1987)
- Whitaker, B.R Preventative Medicine Programs
for Fish 1999 in Fowler, M.E & Miller R.E (eds) Zoo and Wild
Animal Medicine (2nd edition) Saunders Philadelphia pp163-181
- www.aquariumpharm.com/publications/aqguide/apc100
- Klinger, R.E & Floyd, R.F Introduction to
Freshwater Fish Parasites Circular 716 University of Florida 1998
(1987)
- www.linkaquaculture.co.uk/ORN02
- www.linkaquaculture.co.uk/ORN02
- www.linkaquaculture.co.uk/ORN02
- www.myfish.org/mafba/index-3
- www.ornamental-fish-int.org/agrexco
- OFI Journal (39) May 2002
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