ANIMAL AID AWARDS
FOR MAD SCIENCE 1997
This year the Awards have a theme - psychological
experiments. For the first time, the Home office statistics have listed the
number of animals used for this area - 28,057 (1995). The main species included
rats (16,906), mice, (1,754), "domestic fowl" (5,212), gerbils (291),
monkeys (229, of which 157 were marmosets and 72 macaques), fish (2,070) and
amphibians (531). Other animals used included rabbits, ferrets, "horses,
donkeys and crossbreeds", pigs, sheep, cattle and turkeys. The Trivial
Awards 1997 highlight experiments on chicks, rats, gerbils and primates.
 In
many psychological experiments, animals are either subjected to stress, drugged
or brain damaged. One very common area of research is to investigate brain functions
by damaging specific parts of the animal's brain and then observing the results.
Many examples are included in the Awards. If the justification is, eventually,
to throw light on human brain function, then surely it is more valid to observe
the many cases of human head injury.
Modern scanning techniques like positron emission tomography can aid this research.
One example from the medical literature explained how neurologists Antonio and
Hanna Damasio at the University of Iowa College of Medicine observe patients
with brain injuries and relate changes in their behaviour to the damaged part
of the brain. They have investigated brain lesions in hundreds of patients so
this is a practical approach (Ref.: Science, 1990, May 18, 812-814). Historically,
it was human observations of people with brain damage that identified the speech
centre.
Another common experiment is to produce "animal models" of anxiety
and depression but anxiety in people results from personal problems and the
complexities of modern, everyday life and cannot be realistically mimicked in
laboratory animals.
The following examples are listed according to the cities where they were carried
out.
1) Animals subjected to brain damage and maternal
separation, Cambridge University
The University Department of Experimental Psychology has reported many experiments
on animals. For instance:
a) maternal separation in rats
Experiments were carried out to see how repeated separation of mother and infant
affected the behaviour of rats when they became adult. The scientists wanted
to investigate the long term effects because "The chronic sequelae of repeated
separations have not been studied as extensively as the acute responses".
The experiments began 5 days after the animals were born. Then, during the next
15 days they were subjected to ten 6 hour periods of separation from their mothers.
The animals' behaviour was then recorded in a variety of tests, leading the
researchers to suggest "the potential utility of early maternal separation
as an animal model of [human] depression".
Funding: in part by the John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation Research
Network on Psychopathology and Development. K Mathews was supported by a Wellcome
Trust Clinical Training Fellowship.
(Ref.: K. Mathews et al, Physiology & Behaviour, 1996, vol. 59, 99-107).
b) brain damage in marmosets
Marmosets have been subjected to brain damage to investigate the effects on
learning and memory. The scientists analysed data from "a large series
of experiments on marmosets" that they had carried out and which involved
injuries to different parts of the brain. In some cases, the experiments led
to "severe" (retrograde) amnesia. It is claimed that the results may
be relevant to understanding amnesia in human beings.
Funding: Medical Research Council.
(Ref.: R. M. Ridley et al, Brain Research Bulletin, 1996, vol. 40, 21-32).
c)
brain damage in rats
Rats were subjected to brain damage to see how it affected their performance
in carrying out tasks. The scientists wanted to investigate the different effects
which arise when different parts of the animal's cerebral cortex are injured.
The damage was produced by injecting a toxic chemical into various areas of
the brain. During one set of experiments, the animals were trained by giving
them electric shocks through an electrified floor. The scientists acknowledge
that some of their findings are "consistent" with human observations
previously reported in the medical literature.
Funding: Wellcome Trust.
(Ref.: J. L. Muir et al, Cerebral Cortex, 1996, vol. 6, 470-481).
d) other experiments
In other experiments reported by the Department of Experimental Psychology,
probes were inserted into the brains of rats to measure chemical changes that
occur when the animals are startled by a noise ("startling acoustic stimuli").
Electric footshocks and flashing lights were used during part of the experiment
to train the animals.
(Ref.: T. Humby et al, Journal of Neuroscience, 1996, vol. 16, 2149-2156).
Another report described how rats were brain damaged to see how it affected
their reaction to unusual foods. These experiments were carried out in an attempt
to see how the brain controls behaviour towards "novelty".
(Ref.: L. H. Burns et at, Behavioural Neuroscience, 1996, vol. 110, 60-73).
Both these experiments were performed in collaboration with US laboratories.
2) Chicks fear smell of cats, Guy's Hospital, London.
Experiments were carried out to see how the smell of a predator affects the
behaviour and brain chemistry of newly-born chicks. Newly-hatched chicks from
ISA, Peterborough were exposed to a variety of odours including that of a laboratory
cat. When the birds were 7 days old, they specifically avoided the smell of
cats. Some of the chicks were killed (by decapitation) to obtain brain tissue
for analysis of the effects the cat odour had produced. The scientists note
that "Regular handling has been widely reported to reduce chicks' fear
of human beings, and as our experiments were designed to measure a fear response
to cat and other odours, the chicks were handled so as to eliminate a response
due to handling".
(Ref.: E. Fluck et al, Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behaviour, 1996, vol. 54
85-91.).
3) Gerbils suffer in Psychology tests, University
of Leeds
Gerbils were separated from their mates in an attempt to mimic human depression.
According to a report in the scientific press, the gerbils became socially withdrawn
and had "quite severe" altered sleep patterns when their life-long
partners were taken away. The scientists wanted to find out what happened to
the animal's brain chemistry when they became "depressed".
(Ref.: Reported by M Day in New Scientist, 1997, January 25, 18).
4) 1-day old chicks decapitated, Newcastle University
(in collaboration with Imperial College, University of London)
Day-old chicks were decapitated to investigate changes in the brain that occur
during early learning experiences. The birds were first exposed to a metal bead
covered in a nasty tasting substance. When they pecked the bead, chicks showed
"a stereotypical disgust reaction, consisting of vigorous beak-wiping and
head-shaking, and a retreat from the offending object". Within 5 minutes
of this experience, they were decapitated for analysis of brain tissue. 47 birds
were used for the final experiment, the eggs being obtained from the Fred Horner
Hatchery in York.
Funding: Science & Engineering Research Council, and the Royal Society.
(Ref.: P. M. Bradley et al, Brain Research, 1996, vol. 708, 100-107).
5)
Animals bred in solitary confinement, Nottingham University
Rats were reared in isolation to act as an "animal model" of human
anxiety and depression. 21 days after they were born, these normally sociable
animals were separated from their litter mates and kept on their own. The scientists
wanted to see how the harmful effects of isolation influence brain chemistry,
and the rats were eventually decapitated for brain tissue analysis. It is claimed
that changes in brain chemistry caused by keeping the animals in isolation,
"may be pertinent to the aetiology [cause] of human trait anxiety".
(Ref.: K. C. F. Fone et al, Psychopharmacology, 1996, vol. 123, 346-352).
In another, similar experiment at Nottingham, baby rats were again reared in
isolation to investigate the effect on anxiety and how valium affects their
behaviour. The scientists explain that previous experiments on the effects of
isolation have given conflicting results, and they argue that "These contradictory
reports have to be resolved for a deeper understanding of the isolation syndrome
and a better understanding of the mechanisms by which social factors influence
the development of psychopathology in humans". They justify their research
by claiming that "Investigation of the pattern of behavioural change in
isolation reared rats may help to understand the aetiology [cause] of human
anxiety disorders". The experiments revealed that keeping rats in isolation
makes them more aggressive and changes the effects of valium.
Funding: EC, and a "Marie Curie" Fellowship to N. Wongwitdecha.
(Ref.: N. Wongwitdecha & C. A. Marsden, Behavioural Brain Research, 1996,
vol. 75, 27-32).
6) Chicks decapitated in learning tests, Open University
Experiments were carried out with 1-day old chicks to investigate the chemical
changes that occur in the brain after learning to avoid a horrible taste. The
birds were trained to avoid pecking a bead by coating it with a substance which
produces "a disgust response". After training, the chicks were decapitated
and the brain tissue analysed.
Funding: BBSRC grant to S. P. R. Rose.
(Ref.: M. P. Clements & S. P. R. Rose, Journal of Neurochemistry, 1996,
vol. 67, 1317-1323).
7) Monkeys brain damaged at Oxford Oxford University
The University department of Experimental Psychology has published a number
of reports. For example:
a) monkeys and brain damage
Monkeys were subjected to brain damage to assess the effect on emotion and motivation.
Brain damage was produced either by the use of a toxic chemical or by surgical
removal of parts of the cortex. Following the production of injuries to different
areas of the brain, the monkeys' behaviour was assessed. In a "food-preference
test", monkeys were offered meat, which normal monkeys would usually avoid.
(This test was used since earlier experiments had shown that brain damaged monkeys
would eat meat.) Another test investigated the brain damaged animals' reaction
to stress and frustration. According to the scientists, "A frustration
task was designed in which food was visible but unavailable to the monkey."
The experiments showed that in some cases, brain damage led to more violent
and aggressive behaviour.
Funding: C. E. Stern funded in part by an O.R.S. award as partial fulfilment
of a D. Phil degree at Oxford.
(Ref.: C. E. Stern & R. E. Passingham, Behavioural Brain Research, 1996, vol.
75,179-193).
b) nerve cell experiments in monkeys
In one report electrodes were inserted into monkeys' brains to measure how nerve
cells respond to different tastes. Three macaques were used. The scientists
justify their experiments by claiming they are needed "to understand how
appetite and food intake are controlled by the brain, and disorders in appetite
and feeding..."
Funding: MRC and the International Glutamate Technical Committee. (Ref.: E.
T. Rolls et al, Physiology & Behaviour, 1996, vol. 59, 991-1000).
In another, similar experiment (in collaboration with the University of Newcastle),
the response of nerve cells in the brain to different faces was recorded.
Funding: National Science Foundation, MRC and others.
(Ref.: L. F. Abbott et al, Cerebral Cortex, 1996, vol. 6, 498-505).
8)
Brain damaged rats go round in circles, University of Central Lancashire, Preston
(in collaboration with the University of Liverpool)
Rats were subjected to brain damage to investigate the effect on behaviour.
The scientists were interested in a part of the brain called the habenula, and
they note that "Relatively little research has examined the behavioural
effects of habenula manipulation..." Brain damage was induced by an electric
current from an electrode inserted into the brain, and after being dosed with
a chemical, the animals were found to go round and round in circles (referred
to as "circling" behaviour). The scientists claim that such experiments
should help in understanding brain disorders and in developing drug treatments.
(Ref.: A. P. Wickens & E. W. Thornton, Experimental Brain Research, 1996, vol.
109, 17-21).
9) Rats' whiskers cut off for brain research, University of Stirling
Scientists cut off rats' whiskers to investigate how the resulting sensory deprivation
affects brain activity. Selected whiskers were removed and the animals kept
for up to two months during which the whiskers were trimmed if any re-growth
occurred. The whiskers were then allowed to re-grow for 2-3 days in preparation
for the final experiment. The animals were anaesthetised and part of the skull
surgically removed to enable the effect of whisker stimulation on nerve cell
activity to be measured.
Funding: BBSRC.
(Ref.: S Dolan & P. M. B. Cahusac, Neuroscience, 1996, vol. 70, 79-92). |
